On November 6, 1947, the television news program "Meet the Press" debuted on NBC-TV. It has since gone on to become the longest running program on network television. (1) During this same period, United States national media portrayals of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints have appeared to fluctuate widely. These trends can be divided roughly into five periods. Following World War II and through most of the 1950s, The Church of Jesus Christ was praised for its success, its emphasis on family values, and its portrayal of traditional American values. As the national climate became heated in the late 1950s and throughout most of the 1960s with the civil rights movement, the Viet Nam war, and student protests, The Church of Jesus Christ was heavily criticized for its perceived racist policies, (2) yet praised for its patriotic image. As this climate softened during the 1970s, so did the media's portrayal of the Church. Though there were pockets of criticism, the overall image of the Church was positive and complimentary. (3) The fourth general period begins with and is highlighted by the announcement of the revelation on priesthood, now found as Official Declaration-2 of the Doctrine and Covenants in 1978. During this period, several events, such as the Solomon Spaulding controversy, the revelation on priesthood, the Mark Hoffman controversies, beginning with the forged Joseph Smith III letter, opposition to the ERA and resistance to the MX missile being located in the Utah-Nevada desert, thrust The Church of Jesus Christ onto the national scene, where it was generally perceived negatively. (4) Finally, since about the late 1980s, as The Church of Jesus Christ has sought to craft its public image with its public relations arm, and through high-profile interviews with media-savvy leaders such as President Gordon B. Hinckley and Elder Neal A. Maxwell, the Church has again held a positive image in the popular media. (5)
Various factors have contributed to this alternating positive/negative image of the Church in the media. One of the most prominent has been the divergence of The Church of Jesus Christ from mainstream national trends. As the national agenda has followed one course, such as the civil rights movement of the 1960s, and as the Church has maintained its traditional views, it has been criticized in the press. (6) Another explanation holds that the national media views the Church in the context of a model minority, similar to the position held by Asian-Americans. While The Church of Jesus Christ has been praised as a model worthy of emulation, it has been distanced from the majority because of its peculiarities. (7) Other factors that have played a role in defining the Church's image in the media include the implementation of standards of objectivity for journalists, (8) the growing internationalization and international focus of the Church, (9) and the various sources of information from which the media acquires its reports, including The Church of Jesus Christ itself, which, with its Public Relations department, (10) has been able to feed the press its own chosen image of itself.
The articles used in this paper are most distinguished by the periods in which they were written. Three of the articles, by Dennis Lythgoe and Stephen W. Stathis, written in Dialogue principally to Mormon scholars, seem to compose a thirteen-year trilogy. The first of these was written by Lythgoe in 1968, and addresses the topic of The Church of Jesus Christ in the media to that time. He sees a definite change in the popular image of Mormonism as the civil rights movement came to prominence and the portrayal of The Church of Jesus Christ changed from one of praise to criticism. (11) Writing with Stephen Stathis in 1977, the authors see that this criticism has toned down somewhat, though the Church was still being criticized in certain areas. (12) Four years later, in 1981, Stathis feels that enough has changed with several sensationalized events that another shift in the Mormon popular image has occurred. (13)
Jan Shipps, noted non-Mormon Mormon scholar, authored three of the articles used. (14) She wrote two of these articles in Christian Century, a conservative Christian periodical, and one in Sunstone, whose audience generally consists of Mormon scholars, liberal Mormons and outsiders interested in Mormonism. One of these articles was essentially repeated in Sunstone and Christian Century, with modifications for the change in audience. Her main point is that the Church's agenda has differed from the media's as The Church of Jesus Christ has emphasized its focus on Jesus Christ (including the recent stated preference of the abbreviated name, as used in this paper), and its growing sense of internationalization and expansion. To the leaders of The Church of Jesus Christ, "the internationalization of Mormonism so crowds the LDS agenda that . . . [other issues for which the Church has received criticism] really [do] appear to be local matter[s]. (15)
The final article covered in this paper is Chen and Yorgason's "'Those Amazing Mormons': The Media's Construction of Latter-day Saints as a Model Minority," written in Dialogue in 1999. (16) After reviewing the previous work done in this area, they propose that the media's presentation of The Church of Jesus Christ be viewed in terms of what they call a "model minority discourse." Using the recent Time magazine cover story, "Kingdom Come," as a case study, (17) they hope to "provoke new and productive ways to think about Mormons' relations with American society." (18)
In the 1950s, the Church was seen as "a thriving church accommodated to or seriously confronting contemporary society." (19) It received ample praise in the areas of business, the social scene, public leaders, welfare and culture. By 1951, the Church's image of a successful people had crystallized. The Church of Jesus Christ was lauded as "a group whose business sense did not detract from their religious devotion or eagerness to help others." (20) In 1952, the Church was described as "'vigorous and independent," and its faith was seen as "a 'way of life' characterized by complete participation." (21) Also that year, leaders, such as Apostle and Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson, were held to be "'the best in the social tradition of the Mormon Church, which is of course, high commendation'," and as "'intelligent, honest, forthright . . . [and] almost too good to be true.'" (22) The welfare program was lauded as a "'self-reliant society'" whereby The Church of Jesus Christ could "'take care of its own.'" (23) And culturally, one reporter observed in 1952 that at a BYU dance, "'no girl appears at a dance in an immodest gown, there are no bottles or cigarettes, no necking or rowdyism, and the dance is opened and closed with a prayer and a hymn.'" (24) The Church of Jesus Christ in this period was seen to uphold traditional American morals.
By the late 1950s and through the 1960s, however, this image was reversed. The media found fault with the Church in several new fields, besides doling criticism in areas where the Church had recently garnered praise. These included the Church's ties with business, social aspects, public leaders, missionary work, perceived anti-intellectualism, and its dominance of Utah politics. Probably the most prominent area of censure involved the Church's position on blacks and the priesthood. A 1965 article accused the Church of operating a totalitarian regime, questioning the Church's extreme financial involvement. (25) Socially, by 1967 members of The Church of Jesus Christ were seen to acquiesce in attempts to assimilate with their neighbors. As they "gave up the 'distinguishing features' of their faith . . . they fit into society as just 'another tolerated minority,' thus losing their religious impact." (26) Ezra Taft Benson was denounced in 1965 as the leader of the Church's right wing, and for claiming that the civil rights movement was communist inspired. Joseph Fielding Smith was characterized in 1963 as "'a stern, old-fangled moralist.'" (27) In 1962, Time accused the Church's missionaries as "'Salesman Saints'" with an obvious distaste for their "'hard sell' proselyting techniques." (28) By 1963, articles began observing a "schism in Mormonism on intellectual grounds," caused by a "'conservatism of an economic elite'." This schism was seen as reaching the top echelons of the Church, where Apostles were divided as leaders of conservative, liberal, and perhaps moderate factions. (29) Articles of the 1960s accused the Church of encroaching on Utah politics, pointing out that 95 percent of Utah's elected officials were members of The Church of Jesus Christ. One politician was quoted as saying, "'You don't have to be a Mormon to win an election in Utah, but it helps.'" (30)
Hostility concerning the Church's policies towards blacks was evident from the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s. The press accused the Church of being slow to change, quoting leaders as saying, "we don't want to go too fast in this matter." This problem was highlighted by media focus on George W. Romney, governor of Michigan and 1968 presidential candidate. Although he attempted to distance himself from the doctrine and pointed to his own record on civil rights, media continued to pin the practice on him through his association with the Church. (31) As the United States underwent reevaluations in its own thought and practices during this turbulent era, the Church was reassessed in the popular image and found to come up short.
By the late 1970s, a new period in the public image of The Church of Jesus Christ had been identified. Despite continuing criticism concerning race and the Church's business holdings, praise for the Church's family values, interest in genealogy, health habits, leaders, and other public members largely overshadowed the limited denunciations.
Although the Church's practice of denying blacks the priesthood was designated in 1970 as an "'incredibly primitive reassertion of obscurantist doctrine concerning race," emphasis was placed on "'signs [that the Church was] responding to its anti-Negro theology'," and that "'the practice will someday be changed.'" (32) The media still seemed fascinated with the Church's vast business holdings, yet some reporters saw "'nothing particularly ominous about the domination of a highly prosperous church'." (33) The Church was also associated with Utah polygamists and faulted for its depictment of the ERA as a "'blanket approach in the hope of solving all problems.'" (34)
Yet praise for the Church in large part outweighed these mild criticisms. Members of the Church in Utah were described as "'a remarkable civilization, giving a particularly American bloom to music and dance, scholarship and science, industry and agriculture, [and] faith and good works'." (35) The Church's family home evening program was lauded as "'probably the most creative material published by any church.'" (36) The Church of Jesus Christ's genealogy program was noted as having "'assembled the largest genealogical research library in the world . . . and had made a major contribution to the collection and preservation of historical resources.'" (37) Members of the Church were lauded for their health habits, as explained by the Word of Wisdom. Members were found to have "'significantly lower cancer rates, fewer heart attacks, less diabetes and other devastating diseases than the rest of us.'" (38) Other institutions, such as the Mormon Tabernacle Choir and the Welfare program were also extolled. (39) All four of the Presidents of The Church of Jesus Christ during this period were praised. David O. McKay was complimented as "'an affable new image of Mormonism to a world that had previously seen the Mormon leaders as dour, dark-suited figures." Joseph Fielding Smith was described as a "'defender of the faith'," and Harold B. Lee was called a "'genius for organization.'" While concerns for his health existed, Spencer W. Kimball was regarded as an "amiable" man who viewed missionary work as "a great character builder." (40) Other prominent Mormons, such as syndicated columnist Jack Anderson, golfer Johnny Miller, the Osmond family entertainers, and wealthy businessman Bill Marriott were also praised for their clean lifestyles and loyalties to their faith. (41) In the 1970s, The Church of Jesus Christ was generally portrayed in a positive light, overshadowing small remnants of censure.
During the next few years, this praise was in turn overshadowed by criticism of a different sort, as the media examined the Church during a series of sensationalized incidents of national interest. In light of the Spalding controversy, the revelation on priesthood, the Church's stance on ERA and the excommunication of Sonia Johnson, the First Presidency statement on the MX missiles, and the Joseph Smith III blessing and other documents found forged by Mark Hoffman, and in other areas, the media expressed concern about "'the concentration of power in religious leadership and the very real possibilities of its misuse.'" (42) In the Spalding controversy in 1977, portions of The Book of Mormon's authorship were called into question by handwriting analysts. These questions were largely discredited by further study and a general agreement that "'handwriting analysis is not an exact science'." (43)
The revelation extending the priesthood to all worthy men sparked intense discussion in the media. The decision was generally praised, only criticized as being "long overdue." According to Jan Shipps, the lateness of the hour was not due to external and internal political and social pressure, but to the increased needs of the Church as it expanded over the earth. (44) In addition, it could be theorized that the Church itself needed this revelation to come at a time when the social pressure had lessened. In 1890, in the face of intense persecution, President Wilford Woodruff had announced a revelation banning polygamy. If this revelation had not come at this time, the consequences would have been extremely adverse for the Church. However, as a result of its timing, this revelation is often perceived as being a change in policy brought on by external political forces. Through the delay of this revelation until 1978 when the pressure had largely subsided from the atmosphere of the 1960s, the Church avoided many of these charges.
The Church was also pressured by its opposition to the ERA. Through its position, the media claimed that it had made its "theology and motives fair game for political dissection in the temporal arena." Some saw the Church as practically single-handedly defeating the ERA. This idea was further elaborated by Sonia Johnson, whose excommunication for being out of harmony with Church leaders and doctrines made her, according to conservative Patrick Buchanan, "our newest media martyr." She said that "if all groups that oppose the ERA marched off into the ocean and drowned, the Mormons would still kill it by themselves. . . . They are head and shoulders above any other group. They are the most powerful and the most wealthy." (45)
The Church's position on the placement of the MX missile in 1981 further divided public opinion. Some saw the Church as "'unexpectedly progressive," welcoming the call to "search for alternatives less disruptive than the Carter shell game," while others saw the Church "'practicing a morality of convenience,'" whose "'geographic morality' should not affect decisions regarding MX, even if it bruises Joseph Smith's dream of a Mormon Shangri-La." (46)
Finally, questions on the Joseph Smith III blessing, the Salamander letter, and other documents disputed the origins and justification for the Church. When these documents were later found to be forged by "collector of Mormon memorabilia" Mark Hoffman, who later killed two people in a cover-up attempt, the controversy "underscored and even legitimized . . . sectarian and secular media complaints about Mormons throughout the latter 1980s." (47)
As these events have subsided, "a less sensationalistic and more positive image returned in the 1990s." (48) This positive conception has largely resembled the Church's public relations image of itself. (49) Through its success, national acceptance, and adherence to traditional American mores of work and morality, The Church of Jesus Christ has been perceived as a "paragon of American citizenship." (50)
According to Jan Shipps, the Church's projected image of itself has embodied two main themes-a refocus on Jesus Christ as the center of theology and its growing internationalization. In its logo, its preferred nickname, The Book of Mormon's 1982 subtitle, and the focus of Church publications, the name of Jesus Christ has been emphasized. (51) The Church's international focus has been emphasized as it has pointed out important stages of growth, as a majority of members reside outside of the United States, followed by a majority of members speaking primarily non-English languages. This image has been further projected through the Church's use of its website and as President Gordon B. Hinckley, "who possesses awesome skill in dealing with the media," has consented to numerous interviews, including high-profile ones with 60 Minutes and Larry King Live. These interviews have "put a familiar face on Mormonism by focusing on the grandfatherly countenance and charming manner of Hinckley." (52)
As a result, the media's impressions of the Church have focused mainly on positive aspects. Principal among these are the Church's moral, financial, and numerical successes, as Time stated in 1994, "The Mormon church is now the epitome of family values and commands an estimated $8 billion in assets even as it accumulates the annual tithes from its millions of believers." (53) While noting the Church's persecuted history, current sources point out that today "the land in which it was born ha[s] come to accept-no, to lionize-its adherents as paragons of the national spirit." (54) The Church's morality is seen as others recognize its "high moral standard on chastity, fidelity, honesty and hard work," values which Americans "feel have been seriously threatened in recent years." (55) These standards are manifested as "Mormons symbolize hard work." Utah is seen to have "one of the country's best-educated, most productive, and youngest work forces." "'Utah is a unique place, where you can actually get things done," according to a 1991 Time article. "The cultural norm is to work together and make a profit.'" This is symbolized by the welfare program, which "saves the state untold millions of tax dollars," as "'no church member has ever found it necessary to apply for government welfare.'" (56) While praise for the Church's embodiment of American principles includes criticism for members who follow Church leadership with "unquestioning belief," curtailing "their own spontaneity and personal reservations," the overall image of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the media today is a very positive one. (57)
What accounts for this fluctuating image of the Church in the popular media? One idea holds that the answer is similar to the causes of nineteenth century Mormon persecution. As Mormons have withdrawn from society, or as society has shifted away from ideals of The Church of Jesus Christ, criticism has grown. As this divide has narrowed, the Church has received praise. (58) In the 1950s, America was generally conservative. A fear of communist aggression engendered renewed patriotism. Family values were emphasized as the baby boom generation was raised. All of these attributes brought the nation closer to the doctrines and practices of The Church of Jesus Christ, and as a result, the Church was seen in a positive light. With the liberal politics of the 1960s, the civil rights movement, opposition to the Viet Nam war and student riots, the Church was seen as behind the times, as it held to traditional standards of morality. The 1970s brought a return to family values, and the Church enjoyed renewed praise. As certain events threatened to rock the boat in the 1980s, the Church and its policies became an object of discussion and frequent criticism in the national media. As those issues have subsided and the Church has modeled American standards of morality, the Church has enjoyed renewed praise.
Another idea places the Church's image in the context of a "model minority discourse." The praise that the Church has received has simultaneously "reinscribed a more sophisticated form of marginalization upon Mormons in America." (59) Media adulation has also signaled "that Mormons might be a threat or, at least, that they bear watching." (60) As an exemplary American minority, the media has distanced the Church from the American majority. An uneasily bridged gap has been created between ordinary Mormons and ordinary Americans, one that requires translators, who are usually Non-Mormon scholars (such as Jan Shipps) who live in the world of America but speak the language of Mormonism, Mormon scholars (like many BYU professors) who live in Mormonism but speak the language of America, Mormon dissidents (e.g., Steve Benson) who are between America and Mormonism, Church leaders (Gordon B. Hinckley, for example) or Mormon celebrities (like Steve Young) who have risen in American eyes. (61) Ordinary Mormons and Mormon women are generally absent as translators, appearing as "strange and unknowable." (62) Although Mormons are perceived as model citizens, they are also seen as a threatening non-mainstream minority which must be constantly vigilated, and this has resulted in the alternating depictions of The Church of Jesus Christ in the popular press.
There are other theories describing the varying impressions of the Church in the media. Standards of journalism have been codified in this era, mandating presenting both sides of an issue. Such editorial policies, combined with personal opinions of journalists have sometimes impeded favorable or balanced coverage of the Church. (63) Jan Shipps points out that the pressing issue of the growing internationalization of the Church has often resulted in dismissing local affairs. The priorities of the Church have centered on the issues of growth. As Shipps declares, "Mormonism now stands poised between past and future . . . [members] can look backward across the past quarter century [writing from 1996] and detect an institutional metamorphosis that is carrying the church into a new phase of existence." (64) From this perspective, issues such as the media's emphasis on the Sonia Johnson excommunication, the MX controversy, and the effect of the Church's revision of its stance on blacks in American public life have paled in significance.
Finally, the Church's growing public relations arm has affected its perception in the popular consciousness. As the Church emphasizes aspects of its faith for which it would like to be known, the media have employed these facets in their reports of the Church. With a few exceptions caused by relatively rare events and issues, this has resulted in a generally positive impression of The Church of Jesus Christ in the long run. Over the last five decades, despite varying trends in the national agenda which have occasionally separated the Church from mainstream society, which have resulted in the media's impression of the Church as a distinct, potentially threatening minority, The Church of Jesus Christ has consistently been able to accentuate positive aspects of its theology as it has created its own popular image. In this manner, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has been able to feed the press.
Chen, Chiung Hwang and Ethan Yorgason, "'Those Amazing Mormons': The Media's Construction of Latter-day Saints as a Model Minority," Dialogue Summer 1999 (32:2), 107-128.
Gottlieb, Bob and Peter Wiley, "Static in Zion," Columbia Journalism Review August 1979 (18:2), 59-62.
Lythgoe, Dennis L., "The Changing Image of Mormonism," Dialogue Winter 1968 (3:4), 45-58.
MSNBC: TV News: Meet the Press, "About Us," 2001,
Shipps, Jan, "Mormon Metamorphosis: The Neglected Story," The Christian Century August 14-21, 1996 (113:24), 784-787.
Shipps, Jan, "On the Record: The Neglected Story of Mormonism Today: What Mike Wallace Missed," Sunstone September 1996 (19:3), 82-86.
Shipps, Jan, "Speaking Out: Sonia Johnson, Mormonism and the Media," The Christian Century January 2-9, 1980 (97:1), 5-6.
Stathis, Stephen W., "Mormonism and the Periodical Press: A Change is Underway," Dialogue, Summer 1981 (14:2), 48-73.
Stathis, Stephen W. and Dennis L. Lythgoe, "Mormonism in the Nineteen-Seventies: The Popular Perception," Dialogue, Spring 1977 (10:3), 95-113.
Stout, Daniel A., Joseph D. Straubhaar and Gayle Newbold, "Critics as Audience: Perceptions of Mormons in Reviews of Tony Kushner's Angels in America," Daniel A. Stout and Judith M. Buddenbaum, eds., Religion and Popular Culture: Studies on the Interaction of Worldviews, Iowa State University Press: Ames, Iowa, 2001, 187-215.
Van Biema, David, "Kingdom Come," Time, 4 August 1997.
1. MSNBC: TV News: Meet the Press, "About Us," 2001,
2. Dennis L. Lythgoe, "The Changing Image of Mormonism," Dialogue Winter 1968 (3:4), 45-58.
3. Stathis, Stephen W. and Dennis L. Lythgoe, "Mormonism in the Nineteen-Seventies: The Popular Perception," Dialogue, Spring 1977 (10:3), 95-113.
4. Stephen W. Stathis, "Mormonism and the Periodical Press: A Change is Underway," Dialogue, Summer 1981 (14:2), 48-73.
5. Jan Shipps, "Mormon Metamorphosis: The Neglected Story," The Christian Century August 14-21, 1996 (113:24), 784-787; Jan Shipps, "On the Record: The Neglected Story of Mormonism Today: What Mike Wallace Missed," Sunstone September 1996 (19:3), 82-86.
6. Lythgoe, "Changing Image."
7. Chen, Chiung Hwang and Ethan Yorgason, "'Those Amazing Mormons': The Media's Construction of Latter-day Saints as a Model Minority," Dialogue Summer 1999 (32:2), 107-128.
8. Chen, "'Those Amazing Mormons'."
9. Jan Shipps, "Speaking Out: Sonia Johnson, Mormonism and the Media," The Christian Century January 2-9, 1980 (97:1), 5-6; Shipps, "The Neglected Story"; Shipps, "Mormon Metamorphosis."
10. Chen, "'Those Amazing Mormons'."
11. Lythgoe, "Changing Image."
12. Stathis, "Nineteen-seventies."
13. Stathis, "A Change is Underway."
14. Shipps, "Sonia Johnson"; Shipps, "The Neglected Story"; Shipps, "Mormon Metamorphosis." A fourth article, Jan Shipps, "The Mormon Image Since 1960," paper presented at 1998 Sunstone Symposium, Salt Lake City, appeared to be germane to this study, but was unavailable for consultation.
15. Shipps, "Sonia Johnson."
16. Chen, "'Those Amazing Mormons'." Two other articles, Gottlieb, Bob and Peter Wiley, "Static in Zion," Columbia Journalism Review August 1979 (18:2), 59-62; and Stout, Daniel A., Joseph D. Straubhaar and Gayle Newbold, "Critics as Audience: Perceptions of Mormons in Reviews of Tony Kushner's Angels in America," Daniel A. Stout and Judith M. Buddenbaum, eds., Religion and Popular Culture: Studies on the Interaction of Worldviews, Iowa State University Press: Ames, Iowa, 2001, 187-215 were also studied, but they do not figure prominently in this paper.
17. David Van Biema, "Kingdom Come," Time, 4 August 1997.
18. Chen, "'Those Amazing Mormons'," 110.
19. Lythgoe, "Changing Image," 45.
20. Ibid., 46.
21. Ibid., 47
22. Ibid., 47.
23. Ibid., 48.
24. Ibid., 48.
25. Ibid., 46.
26. Ibid., 47.
27. Ibid., 47-48
28. Ibid., 48-49.
29. Ibid., 52-53.
30. Ibid., 49.
31. Ibid., 50-52.
32. Stathis, "Nineteen-Seventies," 106-107.
33. Ibid., 108.
34. Ibid., 109-110.
35. Ibid., 95.
36. Ibid., 102.
37. Ibid., 102-104.
38. Ibid., 104-105.
39. Ibid., 105-106.
40. Ibid., 97-99.
41. Ibid., 99-102.
42. Stathis, "A Change is Underway," 70.
43. Ibid., 49-51.
44. Ibid., 51-52.
45. Ibid., 52-58, Shipps, "Sonia Johnson," 5-6.
46. Ibid., 61-64.
47. Ibid., 58-61, Chen, "'Those Amazing Mormons'," 110.
48. Chen, "'Those Amazing Mormons'," 110.
49. Ibid., 126.
50. Ibid., 114.
51. Shipps, "Mormon Metamorphosis," 784; Shipps, "The Neglected Story," 83.
52. Ibid., 785,
53. Chen, "'Those Amazing Mormons'," 111.
54. Ibid., 114.
55. Ibid., 118-119.
56. Ibid., 115-118.
57. Ibid., 120-121.
58. Lythgoe, "Changing Image," 54.
59. Chen, "'Those Amazing Mormons'," 110.
60. Ibid., 112.
61. Ibid., 123.
62. Ibid., 124.
63. Ibid., 109; Stathis, "Nineteen-Seventies," 95.
64. Shipps, "Mormon Metamorphosis," 787; Shipps, "Sonia Johnson," 6; Shipps, "The Neglected Story," 86.
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